This guide aims to help you decide when and how to use quotations, paraphrases and summaries of the arguments of others in your work.
1. Introduction
Writing an academic essay is a personal activity, but to make a sustainable argument you usually need to engage with the arguments of others. To do that, you will either directly and accurately quote what they have said; or paraphrase (restate the argument in your own words); or summarise (outline the main points of a large section of text or the whole document). This Guide outlines when and how to deploy these options. More detailed information is provided in the Student Handbook.
2. Using direct quotes in your essay
A text becomes a quote when it is taken from its original context and integrated into your essay. Quotes never fully explain themselves. You need to show why you have used a quote by explaining its relevance and meaning in relation to the flow of your argument. If you can’t do that, don’t use the quote.
Kinds of quote
There are three main ways you can add quotes to your essay. A block quote (or extract) is a quotation of many lines or several paragraphs. It is indented to set it off from your own text as a separate paragraph, and not placed within quotation marks. Use a block quote when an author concisely presents a complex argument, or relates a story that you believe should be retold in full, or for other stylistic reasons.
A full quote is a shorter block of text. If it runs to five or more lines in your essay, indent it and omit quotation marks. A well-chosen quote demonstrates your research ability and attracts the reader’s attention, especially if you first give the author’s name. It may also flag a transition in your argument.
A partial quote, bounded by quotation marks and not indented, integrates the cited text into your own sentences. It is efficient, but tends to give the least added weight to your argument. Often, however, a partial quote does the work of defining or explaining a term more accurately, and in fewer words, than you could achieve using your own words.
For clarity or succinctness, you may delete words from a quote, or add words of your own. Indicate omissions by inserting an ellipsis within square brackets (“[…]”); and additions also in square brackets (e.g. “[and]”). Ensure that the altered text makes sense and remains true to the intent of the original.
Such metalinguistic options give you considerable freedom to direct the attention of your readers. As humanities academic and author Eric Hayot observes:
you’re not always citing material for the same reasons. Sometimes you want what you quote to remain at the forefront of the reader’s consciousness; sometimes you’re happy to have it dissipate immediately so you can move on to the next idea. Some material is primary, some secondary; some subject to close reading, some not; some establishes that reading’s contextual foreground, some its distant background.[1]
If you quote from another source, you must provide full referencing to show where you found the material. This demonstrates academic honesty and enables others to identify and locate the sources should they wish to do so. For more on referencing see the companion Guide on citation and plagiarism in this series, and the Student Handbook.
Pros and cons
There are good reasons for using quotations in your essay:
Use a quote rather than a paraphrase or summary “when the passage is so effective – so clear, so concise, so authoritative, so memorable – that you would be hard-pressed to improve on it.”[2]
The use of well-chosen quotes along with accurate citation will give your essay a professional appearance, and may improve your grade.
A well-chosen quote at the start of your essay may impress readers and encourage them to keep reading. Use it as a springboard to launch your argument.
Direct quotes appear authoritative. Use them to add credibility or gravitas to your words and arguments. But use them sparingly, as long quotes may distract readers from your line of thought, or suggest laziness or hurry.
Quotes are especially useful for giving definitions of specialist terms, and to concisely state facts, ideas or opinions mentioned by an author. The author has done the work for you, saving time and space that you can devote to other aspects of your essay.
There are also good reasons to resist using direct quotes from other sources:
Poorly chosen quotes, or quotes that are badly integrated into your essay, will confuse readers and may reduce your grade. Only use a quote that strengthens or advances the argument you want to make in your essay.
You may have recorded incorrect or incomplete bibliographic references, and not have enough time to make corrections. In this case you have no option but to omit the quote.
Too many quotes in an essay may suggest over-reliance on the arguments of others and a corresponding lack of critical thought of your own. Or it may indicate over-emphasis on descriptive rather than analytical and evaluative work.
Quotes used in your conclusion may detract from the strength of your conclusion, depending on the nature of the essay.
There are times when a paraphrase or summary works better than a direct quote.
How to add quotations to your essay
Always quote accurately, including original spelling, punctuation and grammar. If you integrate a partial quote into your sentence, ensure that the sentence makes grammatical sense.
Always use indentation or quotation marks to distinguish direct quotations from paraphrase and summaries.
Quote from primary sources to highlight the work of an original author with precision, or to reproduce graphs, charts and statistics.
Quote from secondary sources when you want to convey the ideas or expressions of an expert or commentator on a topic or primary source.
You can insert two or more quotations from the same or different sources in your paragraph for emphasis, comparison or contrast.
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Employ signal verbs to indicate the author’s apparent intention in writing. See Section 5 below for a sample list of signal verbs.
Take care not to overuse quotes from secondary sources, which may indicate either “(1) that you did not have a clear focus and copied almost everything related to the subject verbatim, or (2) that you had inadequate evidence and used numerous quotations as padding.”[3]
Always show that you understand the author’s argument. Explain why you chose the quote and how it advances your argument.
Inserting a block quote does not necessarily show that you have analysed or evaluated the material. It may be better to summarise the whole text in your own words and select a short quote to illustrate a key point you want to make.
You don’t need to use all the relevant quotations you find in your research. If in doubt, leave it out.
Different topics and lecturers will demand different approaches to the use of quotations. For example, if you are analyzing a biblical passage, or a section of Calvin’s Institutes, you may need to use more quotes than you would in writing a reflective essay on your experience of prayer.
Ensure that any additions or omissions you make to the quotation are clearly identified and do not deliberately distort the original meaning of the text.
When quoting from the internet, ensure that you provide full referencing including date of publication (where available) and the date on which you accessed the material.
When quoting from other languages, ensure accurate transcription using special fonts or scripts if available. If the original text does not include translation, you may want to insert an accurate translation, remembering to enclose any additions with square brackets.
3. Paraphrasing what others have said
A paraphrase is “a restatement of all the information in a passage in your own words, using your own sentence structure and composed with your own audience in mind to advance your argument.”[4]
When to paraphrase
Use paraphrase in any of the following situations:
When the text does not warrant direct quotation.
When all the information in your text is relevant to your purpose, but the words or style of writing are hard to understand.
When you are asked to restate material in your own words. Paraphrasing helps to clarify the passage for yourself, and shows your ability to critically analyse what you have read and restate the information in a fresh form.
If the text is already clear and concise, consider inserting it as a direct quote in your essay rather than as a paraphrase. If your readers don’t need all the information in the text, consider presenting it as a summary (see section 4).
How to paraphrase
Ensure that the text you plan to paraphrase enhances your argument.
Make good summary notes of the text, then write a paraphrase from your notes and reflection. Compare your paraphrase with the original text and revise to improve accuracy and style.
To paraphrase, you need to completely restate the passage. Edit the word order and sentence structure until your draft reflects your understanding of what the author meant and is in a style suitable to your readers.
Use your own words (about 90 per cent of your word count should be your own words), but feel free to retain exceptional words and phrases from the text, enclosed with quotation marks.
You don’t need to place commonly used words from the text in quotation marks. But if you are aware that an author has used a word or phrase in an unconventional way, treat it as a quotation embedded in your paraphrase (that is, use quotation marks around the word or phrase).
Use appropriate signal verbs, and rephrase numbers and statistics (e.g. “one quarter” might be rendered “25 per cent”). See page 8 for a sample list of signal verbs.
Insert occasional reminders that you are paraphrasing (e.g. “Smith also notes…” and “She argues that…”), otherwise it can be difficult to identify where the paraphrase ends and your own writing recommences. In academic writing, your markers will assume that any text not clearly referenced is your own idea or opinion, and you will want to avoid allegations of plagiarism.
Always include full referencing even though you are not using direct quotes.
Ensure that the final draft of your paraphrase is no longer than the original text.
A paraphrase is the most difficult note to write … With interpretation, you act as a bridge between the source and the reader as you capture the wisdom of the source in approximately the same number of words.[5]
Determining how much of your essay you should devote to paraphrases will depend on factors such as your topic, the purpose of your writing, and the number of potential sources you intend to use. As with quotes, it is important to get the balance right between the amount of paraphrased text of another writer’s work and your own original writing. Jeanne Godfrey suggests that
Most types of undergraduate essay will consist of many short paraphrases from different sources … However, try not to end up with lots of short paraphrases that are merely strung together by individual phrases or sentences of your own. If you find yourself doing this, go back and do some more thinking about what your argument is. Then try to emphasise your own argument more in your writing, summarise your sources more, and give more of your own evaluations and comments on sources to show how they support your points.[6]
Common mistakes when paraphrasing [7]
Making too few changes from the original. If most of the words and style of your paraphrase are not your own, you are committing plagiarism. Review the advice above on how to paraphrase, and try to introduce greater creativity and originality in your work.
Changing words but retaining the original sentence structure. Ensure that you write from your detailed notes and not directly from the text you are paraphrasing. Copying sentence structure is also plagiarism.
Accidentally changing the meaning of the original text. Make quality notes and think critically about your reading. Distinguish fact from opinion. Take note of the subtle ways (rhetorical styles) in which arguments are put. This will help increase comprehension and reduce misunderstanding.
4. Summarising what others have said
A summary is an outline, not a restatement. It condenses the general content or essence of a source, and is much shorter than a paraphrase. Summaries differ: a summary of a chapter or a book requires slightly different techniques. The length will depend on why you need to use it.
When to summarise
Use summaries in any of the following situations:
To show that you have understood the key point of a text and can express it clearly and briefly in your own words.
To provide summary evidence or support for your own argument.
To provide an overview of several sources that share a similar perspective on an issue (e.g. “Augustine’s understanding of the doctrine of perseverance is discussed in books by Smith and Jones, and in articles by Jones, Lossky and McGillicuddy.”). Include all references.
How to summarise
Read the entire text, observing how the source text is structured, and note key information in chapter titles, sub-headings, introduction and conclusion as you would for paraphrasing. Distinguish definitions and explanations from examples and stories.
Make clear notes on your reading and reflect on what you have written. Don’t be distracted by detail, and resist the temptation to revert to detailed note-taking.
As for quotations, employ signal verbs to indicate the author’s intention in writing. See page 8 for a sample list of signal verbs.
Capture the essence of the text in one or two sentences to clarify your thinking. Write a more detailed summary if the source text warrants it.
If you are summarising a book-length text, make very brief notes on each chapter and identify three or four key aspects of the book. Write your summary based on these aspects.
If your summary runs to several sentences, insert occasional reminder phrases to indicate that the later sentences are summary points from your source.
Consider how your summary fits into your essay in terms of structure and argument. Clearly show why you have included the summary.
As for paraphrasing, ensure that you include full referencing.
A smart technique for summarising a large text is “ventriloquism,” in which you explicitly write in the author’s voice but summarise rather than quote. For example, in his book Mimesis, Eric Auerbach ventiloquises Rabelais in a substantial paragraph using only one reminder phrase: “And what – Rabelais in effect goes on – did I mean to accomplish by this Prologue? That you, when you read all the pleasant titles of my writings…”[8]
Common mistakes when summarising [9]
Accidentally changing the meaning of the original text.
Providing too much detail and adding minor as well as major points.
Adding your own opinion or comments (the task is to summarise the text, not analyse or evaluate – that comes later).
Failing to identify where the summary begins and/or ends.
Citing a primary source while basing your summary on a secondary commentary on the source.
5. Other forms
A précis is a concise summary that closely reflects the style and tone of the original text. Use précis for book and article reviews, annotated bibliographies, plot summaries, and journal and theses abstracts.
An analysis is more than a summary. To analyse a text, break it up into its constituent parts to determine the relationship between them and clarify the structure of the author’s argument. As for paraphrase and summary, look for clues to the text’s structure and purpose in the titles, sub-headings, introduction and conclusion, and leading sentences of sections and paragraphs.
In a synthesis, your gist should be a succinct statement that brings into focus not the central idea of one text but the relationship among different ideas in multiple texts.[10]A synthesis is a short argument based on your analysis of several selected texts, with the parts rearranged and combined to support your own argument. A synthesis demonstrates awareness of the wider context in which these texts are situated, and creates a starting point for your argument. Whereas a summary shows evidence of comprehension and analysis, a synthesis goes further, demonstrating critical thinking about the arguments of the author(s), how these fit in a larger conversation, and how they relate to the argument you wish to advance.
List of signal verbs
Use signal verbs to indicate your understanding of an author’s intention in writing. Choose the most appropriate verb to indicate where an author makes a claim, expresses agreement or disagreement, indicates questioning, or makes recommendations. If necessary, change to past tense to reflect the citation convention you’re expected to use, but be consistent.
It is possible to overuse such words; in my writing I often limit the use of signal verbs to “argues,” “discusses,” “notes,” “observes” and “says.” You may also refer to a quote, paraphrase or summary with the words, “According to [author’s name], …”
acknowledges
admires
admits
advises
advocates
affirms
agrees
allows
analyses
answers
argues
articulates
asserts
assumes
attacks
believes
calls for
canvasses
celebrates (the fact that)
charges
claims
clarifies
comments
complains
complicates
concludes
concurs
confirms
considers
contends
contradicts
corroborates
criticises
declares
deconstructs
defines
demands
denies
denounces
deplores (the tendency to)
describes
discloses
discusses
disputes
does not deny
echoes
emphasises
encourages
endorses
engages with
exhorts
explains
expresses
extols
finds
fudges
grants
holds
identifies
illustrates
implies
implores
informs
insists
interprets
introduces
leaves us with
lists
notes
objects
observes
offers
opines
opposes
outlines
pleads
points out
points to
praises
presents
promotes
proposes
qualifies
queries
questions
reaffirms
reasons
recognises
recommends
refutes
regards
rejects
remarks
reminds us
renounces
replies
reports
repudiates
responds
restates
reveals
ridicules
says
shows
states
suggests
summarises
sums up
supports
tells us
theorises
thinks
urges
vacillates
verifies
wants to
warns
wishes
wonders
writes
References
Rose, Jean, The Mature Student’s Guide to Writing (3rd edn; London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012).
Greetham, Bryan, How to Write Better Essays (4th edn; London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018).
Hayot, Eric, The Elements of Academic Style: Writing for the Humanities (New York: Columbia University Press, 2014).
Greene, Stuart & Lidinsky, April, From Inquiry to Academic Writing: A Practical Guide (Boston: Bedford St Martin’s, 2015).
Lester, James D., Writing Research Papers: A Complete Guide (15th edn; Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson, 2015).
Godfrey, Jeanne, How to Use Your Reading in Your Essays (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013).
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© 2018 Moore Theological College. All rights reserved. Written by Rod Benson. 08/18
For a list of Academic Writing Guides published by the Donald Robinson Library, contact the Research Support Officer at Rod.Benson@moore.edu.au.
[1]Eric Hayot, The Elements of Academic Style: Writing for the Humanities (New York: Columbia University Press, 2014), 154.
[2] Stuart Greene & April Lidinsky, From Inquiry to Academic Writing: A Practical Guide (Boston: Bedford St Martin’s, 2015), 152.
[3]James D. Lester, Writing Research Papers: A Complete Guide (15th edn; Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson, 2015), 140.
[4] Greene & Lidinsky, From Inquiry to Academic Writing, 152.
[5]Lester, Writing Research Papers, 141.
[6]Jeanne Godfrey, How to Use Your Reading in Your Essays (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 40f.
[7] These three points are drawn from Godfrey, 41.
[8]Hayot, Elements of Academic Style, 158f.
[9]Godfrey, How to Use Your Reading, 48.
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